Summary:
While there are books on how British came to rule India, there are very few books that address how specific areas in India came under British rule. This book traces the history of Tirunelveli till 1801. Even though the author claims to write about the earliest period, it is slim pickings as he has to go on inscriptions and not detailed accounts of Tirunelveli during those times. It gives a very good overall view of history of South India in general and Tirunelveli in particular even if it is obviously biased towards British (he praises British for bringing rule of law to lawless lands of Madurai and Tirunelveli without analyzing why they became suddenly lawless under British) and jaundiced towards Hindus as a people. I agree with him when he writes about his frustrations about the lack of historical sources behind many of the claims made by poets in Tamil country. Because of the lack of evidence in terms of inscriptions (in temples or in the form of coins), he relies on Sinhala history (Mahawamsa), Ancient Greeks, Islamic and European Christian scholars. It does require the reader to ignore several snide remarks on the general living condition of Hindus throughout the book.
He walks through the historical references to Tirunelveli from Mahabharata, Greeks under Alexander and Buddhists under Ashoka. Because Tirunelveli lies to the south of what has historically been Pandiyan country (with its capital at Madurai), he also discusses the interactions between Cheran, Cholan and Pandiyan dynasties after 10th century AD. He then walks the reader through Islamic invasions that laid waste to Madurai followed by the British occupation of South India. The book contains details on how much difficulty British East India company had in suppressing the resistance from Tirunelveli and its surrounding environments and how the various actors constantly jockeyed for position with one another. Tirunelveli and Tuticorin came to be seen as centers of their own only under British. Madurai has always been considered the crown jewel of Pandiyan country (location of ancient Tamil sangams). With the onslaught of Islamic forces on Madurai, came the devolution of power to Madurai's surrounding areas - Tirunelveli, Ramanathapuram, Tiruchi, Tuticorin. With the departure of British, Madurai has now returned to its rightful place as the cultural locus of Tamils.
There is a wealth of information of how certain names came to be, including Tamarabarani, Kattabomman. The book completely ignores any famine related events that happened during the British period while making sure to highlight the famines that people remember before the arrival of British - In this the author is willing to use people's narratives as evidence that he is not willing to use for Indian historical characters. Reading this book provides the source material for of the Kattabomman character played by Sivaji Ganesan right down to his proud walk to the gallows and his lament before being hanged. It also provides insight into a whole host of fascinating characters who fought the British East India Company but who have been consigned to the dustbin of history.
Analysis:
Tamil movies use the different dialects of Tamil across different regions of Tamil Nadu to provide background to their stories (Nassar's portrayal in Thevar Magan). The Dravidian parties have fetishized written Tamil to such an extent that the Tamil dialects have been treated with disdain by Tamil intelligentsia. The dialects of Tamil Nadu owe their existence to the different dynasties that were paramount throughout history. In early 1800's, the Tamil spoken in Tirunelveli was classified as kodun-tamil (bad tamil) and that is a reflection of the repeated assaults that Pandiyan country in general and Tirunelveli in particular faced.
Owing to lack of reliable (according to the author) historical sources, the author refers only to the Greek inscriptions and Islamic writers to portray the history of Tirunelveli till 11th century. He also does not consider Indian sources to be particularly credible even when they are backed by inscriptions. His uncritical acceptance of English superiority in discerning the validity of historical sources comes through in his quotations of Professor Horace Wilson (author of 'Historical Sketch of the Kingdom of Pandya):
'It may be concluded that had not a wise and powerful policy interfered to inforce the habits of social life, the fine districts to the south of Kaveri, most admirably fitted by nature to support an industrious population, would have reverted to a state in which tradition describes them long anterior to Christianity, and would once more have become a suitable domicile for the goblins of Ravana or the apes of Hanuman'.
Tamarabarani has been referred in Mahabharata as the place where gods, desirous of Heaven, performed austerities and where Arjuna married Chitrangada, a Pandiyan princess (which is not mentioned in the North Indian versions of Mahabharata) and where Sahadevan is supposed to have visited his sister-in-law in Sabha paruvam. Greeks during the time of Alexander referred to Tamaraparani as Taprobane while Greeks during Ptolemy's time referred to Tamaraparani as Solen and to Pothigai (the mountain range from where Tamaraparani originates) as Bettigo. Buddhists in Ashoka's period referred to it as Tambapanni (in the inscription at Girnar). In Chandra Gupta Maurya's time, Selecus Nicator, the Greek Ambassador, wrote about the pearl trade of Pandiyas, something that Marco Polo wrote in detail in 14th century as well. In the early years of Christian Era (before 20 AD), Pandiyas sent a delegation to Greeks (as explained in writings of Strabo and Pliny the Elder). The Greek word for rice, oryza, comes from arisi. The earliest occurrence of Tamil words making their way into another language overseas occurred with the Hebrew word, Tuki for peacock feather (from Tokai).
The earlier civilizations in Pandiya country conducted a vibrant trade through Korkai, near the mouth of Tamaraparani. In terms of mythology, Cheras, Cholas and Pandiyas were supposed to be 3 brothers from Korkai. The Pandiyan brother stayed home while the Cheran and Cholan siblings went in search of lands to conquer.By 11th century, Cholas emerged as a major power defeating Chalukyas and Pandiyas. The defeat of Vira Pandiyan by Raja Raja Cholan (as described in Chalukyan inscriptions) is covered by Kalki in Ponniyin Selvan (the tone of Kalki's writings makes it clear where his sympathies lie - with Cholas and against Pandiyas). With the defeat of Pandiyas, Cholas became the paramount power in South India and major kings of their dynasty (as described in this book) were:
1. Raja Raja Cholan
2. Rajendra Cholan - Died in 1064 AD
3. Kulotunga Cholan - Died in 1112 AD
4. Karikala Cholan - He persecuted Ramanuja and Vaishnavites. Ramanuja fled to the court of Bitti Deva, Ballala King of Dwara Samudra who in turn converted from Jainism to Vaishnavism in 1117 AD
5. Vira Cholan
6. Vikrama Cholan
7. Sundara Pandiya Cholan - He converted from Jainism to Saivism under the influence of Gnana Sambandhar (who was invited to Madurai by his wife, a Chola Princess). To mark the occasion, he impaled 8,000 Jainas to death. Towards the end of his reign, Islamic conquests (emanating from Delhi Sultanate) spread across the interior of India. According to Islamic historians (Wassaf, Rashiduddin, Amir Khusru), Sundara Pandiyan and Vira Pandiyan were brothers. When their father, Kulasekhara Thevar nominated Vira Pandiyan as the heir to the throne (on account of his courage and shrewdness), Sundara Pandiyan killed his father (This is the story covered by Su. Venkatesan (who received Sahitya Akademi award for his Kaaval Kottam) in his novel Chandrahaasam - his novels can be considered as a counterbalance against the obvious bias of Kalki's writings towards Chola exploits) and took over the kingdom. Vira Pandiyan fought him but was defeated. Vira Pandiyan went to Delhi and gathered support from Ala-ud-din Khilji and came back with the Sultanate army to depose Sundara Pandiyan from the throne. Sundara Pandiya Cholan went to Delhi entreating the Sultanate help in getting back the throne. Malik Kafur (Hazar dinari) marched from Delhi with a Sultanate army and crushed Dwara Samudra and razed Madurai to the ground. The Hoysala (Dwara Samudra) and Chola-Pandiya dynasties spent quite a bit of their fortune on importing horses from Middle East (which allowed Hormuz to become a thriving center of horse trade that was then taken over by Portuguese in the 16th century).
Dwara Samudra was centered around Mysore and at its peak (late 13th century and early 14th century) covered present day Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. The Hoysala dynasty was extinguished by another Islamic invasion by Muhammad III of Tughlaq dynasty. The Ballala king escaped from Dwara Samudra and took refuge in Tonnur, ruling over a much smaller territory till 1387.
Vijaya Nagara empire arose in 1336 when Dwara Samudra declined. It was founded by 2 brothers, Hakka (Harihara) and Bukka. Its original name was Vidya nagara (City of learning) but was later changed to Vijaya Nagara (City of Victory). The most famous of the Vijaya Nagara dynasty was Krishna Deva Raya (1508 - 1530) whose time overlapped with the establishment of Portuguese power in India. The constant warring between Vijaya Nagara and neighboring Bijapur demanded significant amount of horses which allowed Portuguese to prosper. Vijaya Nagara kings captured most of South India by end of 14th century. The surviving Pandiya dynasty looked to Vijaya Nagara empire for guidance. When the Pandiya king was driven from his throne, Vijaya Nagara sent a general, Nagama Nayaka to reinstate the Pandiya king to his throne. Nagama Nayaka proceeded to declare himself as the King of Pandiya country and his son Viswanatha Nayaka, sent from Vijaya Nagara, defeated him in battle. As a recognition of his efforts, Viswanatha Nayaka was given governorship of Madurai and Tanjore (the former Chola and Pandiya kingdoms). Viswanatha Nayaka also put down rebellions from local chieftains in Tirunelveli. To streamline his administration, Viswanatha Nayaka parcelled out the bastions of Madurai fort to 72 Palayakkaarars (Palayakaarar, Poligar (English), Palegadu (Telugu)) who were responsible for its defense at all times and under all circumstances. The Palayakkaarars also had to pay a fixed annual tribute to Viswanatha Nayaka in addition to supplying a quota of troops for his armies. In return they were given titles to particular villages and bestowed with the title of Palayakkaarar. While Dwara Samudra's power resulted in the spread of Kannada across South India, Vijaya Nagara empire spread Telugu across South India. Vijaya Nagara empire was defeated by an agglomeration of Islamic powers in the Battle of Talikota on 25th January 1565. With the utter destruction of Vijaya Nagara empire, Telugus migrated to various parts of Tamil Nadu and in 17th century, the Nayaks in Tanjore, Madurai and Gingee became independent. However, they still considered themselves as beholden to the rump Vijaya Nagara dynasty in Penugonda (in present day Bellary).
After Nayaks became independent, other kingdoms arose in Mysore and Chandragiri (It was from Raja of Chandragiri that English obtained a grant for present day Chennai (named after the Raja's general Chennappa) on March 1, 1640). The famous Nayaks (whose works have survived to this day) were Tirumalai Nayakar who ruled from 1623 - 1659 and Rani Mangammal who ruled from 1689 - 1704. Nayak rule ended when Vijaya Ranga Chokka Natha Nayakkar died in 1731 without a heir. Queen Minakshi adopted a boy and served as the regent in his stead. However, the boy's father Vangaru Tirumalai rose in opposition and requested Nawab of Arcot to intervene. Nawab of Arcot sent an army under Chanda Sahib to sort out the matters. Chanda Sahib imprisoned Queen Minakshi who then killed herself. Vangaru Tirumalai now appealed to Marathas who marched with an army and joined forces with neighboring Hindu kingdoms to depose Chanda Sahib and Nawab of Arcot. Nizam of Hyderabad sent an army to root out the Marathas and appointed his representative, Mohammad Ali Khan Wallajah as Nawab of Arcot. Chanda Sahib now appealed to the French while British supported the Nizam.
In 1754, Commander of British East India Company's sepoys, Mohammad Yusuf Khan (who was born Marudhanayagam Pillai but converted from Hinduism to Islam) helped the English bring Madurai and Tirunelveli under the control of Nawab of Arcot. With the constantly shifting alliances, the Palayakkaarrars in Madurai and Tirunelveli ended up fighting with Mohammad Yusuf Khan. In 1760, Mohammad Yusuf Khan, under Colonel Heron of British East India Company, fought against Kattabomma Nayakar in Panjalamkurichi. In his pacification campaigns, Mohammad Yusuf Khan was pretty cruel towards civilians, blasting prisoners from the mouth of a cannon. Palayakkaarar of Avudiayarpuram, Puli Thevar, joined forces with Raja of Travancore and defeated Nawab of Arcot's forces near Kalakkadu. He offered to form a confederation of Palayakkaarars by joining up with Kattabomma Nayakkar but was rebuffed. When Nawab of Arcot's forces under the leadership of Mahfuz Khan counterattacked, Kattabomma Nayakar supported Mahfuz Khan in his endeavors and they were able to defeat Puli Thevar who fled to the forests. With the general disquiet among Palayakkaarars increasing, Mohammad Yusuf Khan marched his army from Tiruchi to subdue the areas around Madurai and Tirunelveli. He linked up with Raja of Travancore and Nawab of Arcot to subdue Puli Thevar and other Palayakkaarars. The Palayakkaarars under Puli Thevar placed their hopes on the success of Hyder Ali and the French. In this fluid situation, Mohammad Yusuf Khan took matters into his own hands and demanded Nawab of Arcot pay him rent for the forts of Madurai and Palayamkottai in 1761. While British East India Company initially backed his claim, they turned on him and sent a force under General Lawrence to subdue him. Mohammad Yusuf Khan now made an alliance with Hyder Ali and the French. With the conclusion of Seven Years War in Europe in 1763, English and French made peace with each other. Marchand, the French Commander assisting Mohammad Yusuf Khan capitulated and delivered him as a prisoner to Major Donald Campbell of the English. This sequence of events throws the author for a loop as he is unable to justify the actions of Europeans towards Mohammad Yusuf Khan and finally blames the Nawab of Arcot for Mohammad Yusuf Khan's fate.
After Mohammad Yusuf Khan's death, British East India Company repeatedly attempted to quell the rebellion among Palayakkaarars but its success was spotty. In 1767, Major Flint attacked Panjalamkurichi fort and was successfully repulsed. Nawab of Arcot and British East India Company made an agreement whereby the Nawab would turn over revenue and administration of Madurai and Tirunelveli to British East India Company for a period of 7 years. In the meantime, Hyder Ali tried to get Palayakkaarars over to his side. British East India Company demanded its revenue payments from Palayakkaarars and under the leadership of Sivagiri Palayakkaarar, they refused to pay up. As a result, Kattabomma Nayakar and other Palayakkaarars were deposed by British East India Company forces. However, once they left, Kattabomma Nayakar hit back, deposing the Palayakkaarar appointed by the British and the Nawab in 1771. He became the Palayakkaarar (again) of Panjalamkurichi in 1776. Around 1780, when Hyder Ali was wooing the Palayakkaarars, Dutch (who already had control of Tuticorin and Ceylon ports) offered an alliance with Kattabomma Nayakar who accepted and as a result, Dutch flag flew in Panjalamkurichi in 1781. In negotiations between British and the Dutch, British East India Company was open to ceding Tirunelveli to the Dutch. However, with the outbreak of Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, the negotiations were abandoned. In 1783, another expedition of British East India Company under Colonel Fullarton besieged Panjalamkurichi fort. After some initial resistance, Kattabomma Nayakkar fled to Sivagiri and joined forces with Sivagiri Poligar. After a protracted battle, both the Palayakkaarars surrendered and were ordered to pay a restitution of 6,000 pounds per year, demolish their defences, guns, stores and ammunition and keep the access road to their respective forts open to officers of British East India Company. With the conclusion of the 7 year agreement between British and the Nawab, the regions around Tiruchi, Madurai and Tirunelveli were ceded back to the Nawab. In 1790, British East India Company took advantage of the weakness of Nawab of Arcot and took over the revenue administration of Tiruchi, Madurai and Tirunelveli. The rebellion of Sivagiri and Panjalamkurichi flared anew. By this time, Ettaiyapuram Palayakkaarar (who had been historically been a dependent of Panjalamkurichi) had gone over to the British side because of a squabble with Kattabomma Nayakkar over turning over particular villages, as demanded by British. Sivagiri Palayakkaarar had also softened by this time, but his son, with encouragement from Mappillai Vanniyan and Sankaralingam Pillai, deposed his father and took up arms against British East India Company. At the same time, British East India Company was fighting with Hyder Ali and Tippu Sultan and the focus on Mysore provided enough of a breathing space of anti-British East India Company Palayakkaarars to shore up their defenses. In 1792, British concluded another treaty with Nawab of Arcot whereupon his kingdom would be protected by Company troops who would be paid from the Nawab's purse. This led to British East India Company mounting a long drawn out campaign to bring Palayakkaarars of Madurai and Tirunelveli to heel.
Even though the movie Kattabomman portrays the Palayakkaarar of Panjalamkurichi, there have been 4 Kattabomma Nayakars and Panjalamkurichi (along with Sivagiri and Avudaiyarpuram) fought British East India Company for a long time .
1. 1709 - This is the one who Mohammad Yusuf Khan and Colonel Heron fought
2. 1760
3. 1791 - This is the one portrayed by Sivaji Ganesan in Kattabomman movie
4. 1799 - This is the one who joins forces with Maruthu brothers - portrayed in Sivagangai Cheemai movie
The Kattabomma Nayakkar portrayed by Sivaji Ganesan was born Karuttaiah and was the eldest of 3 brothers. His younger brother was deaf and mute (Oomai Durai) called Kumaraswami Nayakkar. The youngest was called Suppa Nayakkar and referred to as Sevattaiah. When Jackson was the collector of Tirunelveli, Kattabomman was accused of stabbing a British East India Company soldier. He was acquitted of the charge owing to preponderance of evidence even though official Ettaiyapuram records still finger Kattabomma Nayakkar as the culprit. Jackson, known for his short temper and speculative excesses, was replaced by Lushington. Lushington demanded Kattabomma Nayakkar pay his kist and submit before him, unarmed, in person. Kattabomma Nayakkar refused and mounted a rebellion along with Palayakkaarars of Nagalapuram, Kollarpatti, Elaiyirampannai, Kadalgudi, Kulaththur, Avudaiyarpuram (even though Puli Thevar later switched his allegiance to British) and Sivagiri. Major Bannerman was sent to subdue Panjalamkurichi. Without waiting for all his forces, he mounted a surprise attack on Panjalamkurichi which was repulsed. After gathering his forces, his second attack was more successful which resulted in Kattabomma Nayakkar escaping first to Sivagangai (in spite of Ettaiyapuram Palayakkaarar's attempts to stop Kattabomma Nayakkar at Kollarpatti) and thence to the country of Vijaya Raghunatha Tondaiman (Raja of Pudukottai). Upon capturing Panjalamkurichi fort, Bannerman put Kattabomman's forces to the sword and as a warning, mounted the head of Subramanya Pillai on a pike. Kattabomma Nayakkar was captured by the forces of Tondaiman at the urging of British. Tondaiman was handsomely rewarded for his treachery with his own kingdom (while the sorrounding areas passed into British control). As an immediate reward, Tondaiman was given a horse and a shawl (Khilut) by Governor of Madras, Lord Clive (Son of Robert Clive) - see below in the transcript link (Page 27). There is even a rumor that Ma. Po. Sivagnanam who wrote the screenplay of Kattabomman movie was blacklisted by the royal family of Pudukottai for painting Tondaiman in a negative light (even though historical evidence is pretty clear on the sympathies of Tondaiman).
Kattabomman was hung from a tree near Kayattar on October 16, 1799. The portrayal of the final moments of Kattabomma Nayakkar in the movie, is taken from the description provided by Bannerman - 'It may not be amiss here to observe the manner and behavior of the Poligar during the whole time of his being before those who were assembled yesterday at the examination which took place was undaunted and supercilious. He frequently eyed the Ettiapuram Poligar, who had been so active in attempting to secure his person, and the Poligar of Sivagiri with an appearance of indignant scorn; and when he went out to be executed he walked with a firm and daring air, and cast looks of sullen contempt on the Poligars to his right and left as he passed. It was reported to me that on his way to the place of execution he expressed some anxiety for his dumb brother alone; and said, when he reached the foot of his tree on which he was hanged that he then regretted having left his fort, in the defence of which it would have been better for him to have died'.
As punishment for their impudence, the rebellious Palayakkaarars were put to work demolishing their own forts and pay coolies from their treasury to do the same. Within a day or two of the demolition, the Panjalamkurichi fort was rebuilt using mud. After the first Palayakkaarar war of 1799, both Oomai Durai and Sevattaiah were imprisoned in Palayamkottai fort. They escaped from the fort dressed as women(they were assisted in this endeavor by an outbreak of smallpox that forced the British to remove chains on all their prisoners in Palayamkottai fort). They reached Panjalamkurichi and immediately started building the defenses back up again. They also defended nearby Kadalgudi and Srivaikuntam from attacks by British East India Company soldiers. After British East India Company gathered its forces, they repeatedly attacked Panjalamkurichi and were successful in overpowering the invaders. Oomai Durai (who was the battle strategist among the Panjalamkurichi brothers - laying out tactics using match sticks in the middle of the battles) was injured in the fight and took refuge in a nearby hut while Sevattaiah escaped to Maruthu brothers in Sivagangai. When Ettaiyapuram soldiers came looking for Oomai Durai, the hostess in the hut covered him with a blanket and told the Ettaiyapuram forces that they had had a smallpox fatality which was enough to scatter the Ettaiyapuram forces. After recovering from his wounds, he joined Sevattaiah at Sivagangai.
The elder Maruthu in Sivagangai was a sportsman and took particular delight in feats of strength. He also set up easy shoots of wild game for British East India Company officers in the woods near Kalaiyar koil (which was the ruling palace of Maruthu brothers). Chinna Maruthu was the leader and administrator of the province. When British East India Company came after Maruthus' dominions for sheltering Sevattaiah and Oomai Durai, Maruthu brothers burnt Siruvayal after evacuating all the people to Kalaiyar Koil. After a long battle, both the Maruthus, Oomai Durai and Sevattaiah were captured on October 1, 1801. The Maruthu brothers were hanged in Tiruppattur while Oomai Durai was hanged in Panjalamkurichi. Sevattaiah was imprisoned in Palayamkottai fort. To make sure Panjalamkurichi never rose again, the fort was levelled to the ground, ploughed over and cultivated. With the crushing of Palayakkaarar resistance, British East India Company took over the control of South India.
Reading this book showed how the establishment of British dominance over the southern districts of Tamil Nadu came at a hefty loss of life (600 - 700 whose graves still adorn those battlefields) for British East India Company. Financially, they were in a good position as its allies (Tondaiman, Palayakaarars) provided significant financial support for any endeavor the British demanded support for. It also shows how the Palayakkaarars played one European power against the other and extended their resistance. In the end, the arrangements made between European powers allowed Britain to focus on getting restive areas in South India under its control.
Other Books of Reference:
The Hollow Crown: Ethnohistory of an Indian Kingdom - Nicholas B Dirks
Yusuf Khan, the Rebel commandant - Samuel Charles Hill
Translations and copies of the letters in which the services of the ancestors of the Rajah Ragoonath Tondiman Behauder are particularly acknowledged ... by the Governors ... of the Honorable E. I. Company
Kaaval Kottam
While there are books on how British came to rule India, there are very few books that address how specific areas in India came under British rule. This book traces the history of Tirunelveli till 1801. Even though the author claims to write about the earliest period, it is slim pickings as he has to go on inscriptions and not detailed accounts of Tirunelveli during those times. It gives a very good overall view of history of South India in general and Tirunelveli in particular even if it is obviously biased towards British (he praises British for bringing rule of law to lawless lands of Madurai and Tirunelveli without analyzing why they became suddenly lawless under British) and jaundiced towards Hindus as a people. I agree with him when he writes about his frustrations about the lack of historical sources behind many of the claims made by poets in Tamil country. Because of the lack of evidence in terms of inscriptions (in temples or in the form of coins), he relies on Sinhala history (Mahawamsa), Ancient Greeks, Islamic and European Christian scholars. It does require the reader to ignore several snide remarks on the general living condition of Hindus throughout the book.
He walks through the historical references to Tirunelveli from Mahabharata, Greeks under Alexander and Buddhists under Ashoka. Because Tirunelveli lies to the south of what has historically been Pandiyan country (with its capital at Madurai), he also discusses the interactions between Cheran, Cholan and Pandiyan dynasties after 10th century AD. He then walks the reader through Islamic invasions that laid waste to Madurai followed by the British occupation of South India. The book contains details on how much difficulty British East India company had in suppressing the resistance from Tirunelveli and its surrounding environments and how the various actors constantly jockeyed for position with one another. Tirunelveli and Tuticorin came to be seen as centers of their own only under British. Madurai has always been considered the crown jewel of Pandiyan country (location of ancient Tamil sangams). With the onslaught of Islamic forces on Madurai, came the devolution of power to Madurai's surrounding areas - Tirunelveli, Ramanathapuram, Tiruchi, Tuticorin. With the departure of British, Madurai has now returned to its rightful place as the cultural locus of Tamils.
There is a wealth of information of how certain names came to be, including Tamarabarani, Kattabomman. The book completely ignores any famine related events that happened during the British period while making sure to highlight the famines that people remember before the arrival of British - In this the author is willing to use people's narratives as evidence that he is not willing to use for Indian historical characters. Reading this book provides the source material for of the Kattabomman character played by Sivaji Ganesan right down to his proud walk to the gallows and his lament before being hanged. It also provides insight into a whole host of fascinating characters who fought the British East India Company but who have been consigned to the dustbin of history.
Analysis:
Tamil movies use the different dialects of Tamil across different regions of Tamil Nadu to provide background to their stories (Nassar's portrayal in Thevar Magan). The Dravidian parties have fetishized written Tamil to such an extent that the Tamil dialects have been treated with disdain by Tamil intelligentsia. The dialects of Tamil Nadu owe their existence to the different dynasties that were paramount throughout history. In early 1800's, the Tamil spoken in Tirunelveli was classified as kodun-tamil (bad tamil) and that is a reflection of the repeated assaults that Pandiyan country in general and Tirunelveli in particular faced.
Owing to lack of reliable (according to the author) historical sources, the author refers only to the Greek inscriptions and Islamic writers to portray the history of Tirunelveli till 11th century. He also does not consider Indian sources to be particularly credible even when they are backed by inscriptions. His uncritical acceptance of English superiority in discerning the validity of historical sources comes through in his quotations of Professor Horace Wilson (author of 'Historical Sketch of the Kingdom of Pandya):
'It may be concluded that had not a wise and powerful policy interfered to inforce the habits of social life, the fine districts to the south of Kaveri, most admirably fitted by nature to support an industrious population, would have reverted to a state in which tradition describes them long anterior to Christianity, and would once more have become a suitable domicile for the goblins of Ravana or the apes of Hanuman'.
Tamarabarani has been referred in Mahabharata as the place where gods, desirous of Heaven, performed austerities and where Arjuna married Chitrangada, a Pandiyan princess (which is not mentioned in the North Indian versions of Mahabharata) and where Sahadevan is supposed to have visited his sister-in-law in Sabha paruvam. Greeks during the time of Alexander referred to Tamaraparani as Taprobane while Greeks during Ptolemy's time referred to Tamaraparani as Solen and to Pothigai (the mountain range from where Tamaraparani originates) as Bettigo. Buddhists in Ashoka's period referred to it as Tambapanni (in the inscription at Girnar). In Chandra Gupta Maurya's time, Selecus Nicator, the Greek Ambassador, wrote about the pearl trade of Pandiyas, something that Marco Polo wrote in detail in 14th century as well. In the early years of Christian Era (before 20 AD), Pandiyas sent a delegation to Greeks (as explained in writings of Strabo and Pliny the Elder). The Greek word for rice, oryza, comes from arisi. The earliest occurrence of Tamil words making their way into another language overseas occurred with the Hebrew word, Tuki for peacock feather (from Tokai).
The earlier civilizations in Pandiya country conducted a vibrant trade through Korkai, near the mouth of Tamaraparani. In terms of mythology, Cheras, Cholas and Pandiyas were supposed to be 3 brothers from Korkai. The Pandiyan brother stayed home while the Cheran and Cholan siblings went in search of lands to conquer.By 11th century, Cholas emerged as a major power defeating Chalukyas and Pandiyas. The defeat of Vira Pandiyan by Raja Raja Cholan (as described in Chalukyan inscriptions) is covered by Kalki in Ponniyin Selvan (the tone of Kalki's writings makes it clear where his sympathies lie - with Cholas and against Pandiyas). With the defeat of Pandiyas, Cholas became the paramount power in South India and major kings of their dynasty (as described in this book) were:
1. Raja Raja Cholan
2. Rajendra Cholan - Died in 1064 AD
3. Kulotunga Cholan - Died in 1112 AD
4. Karikala Cholan - He persecuted Ramanuja and Vaishnavites. Ramanuja fled to the court of Bitti Deva, Ballala King of Dwara Samudra who in turn converted from Jainism to Vaishnavism in 1117 AD
5. Vira Cholan
6. Vikrama Cholan
7. Sundara Pandiya Cholan - He converted from Jainism to Saivism under the influence of Gnana Sambandhar (who was invited to Madurai by his wife, a Chola Princess). To mark the occasion, he impaled 8,000 Jainas to death. Towards the end of his reign, Islamic conquests (emanating from Delhi Sultanate) spread across the interior of India. According to Islamic historians (Wassaf, Rashiduddin, Amir Khusru), Sundara Pandiyan and Vira Pandiyan were brothers. When their father, Kulasekhara Thevar nominated Vira Pandiyan as the heir to the throne (on account of his courage and shrewdness), Sundara Pandiyan killed his father (This is the story covered by Su. Venkatesan (who received Sahitya Akademi award for his Kaaval Kottam) in his novel Chandrahaasam - his novels can be considered as a counterbalance against the obvious bias of Kalki's writings towards Chola exploits) and took over the kingdom. Vira Pandiyan fought him but was defeated. Vira Pandiyan went to Delhi and gathered support from Ala-ud-din Khilji and came back with the Sultanate army to depose Sundara Pandiyan from the throne. Sundara Pandiya Cholan went to Delhi entreating the Sultanate help in getting back the throne. Malik Kafur (Hazar dinari) marched from Delhi with a Sultanate army and crushed Dwara Samudra and razed Madurai to the ground. The Hoysala (Dwara Samudra) and Chola-Pandiya dynasties spent quite a bit of their fortune on importing horses from Middle East (which allowed Hormuz to become a thriving center of horse trade that was then taken over by Portuguese in the 16th century).
Dwara Samudra was centered around Mysore and at its peak (late 13th century and early 14th century) covered present day Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. The Hoysala dynasty was extinguished by another Islamic invasion by Muhammad III of Tughlaq dynasty. The Ballala king escaped from Dwara Samudra and took refuge in Tonnur, ruling over a much smaller territory till 1387.
Vijaya Nagara empire arose in 1336 when Dwara Samudra declined. It was founded by 2 brothers, Hakka (Harihara) and Bukka. Its original name was Vidya nagara (City of learning) but was later changed to Vijaya Nagara (City of Victory). The most famous of the Vijaya Nagara dynasty was Krishna Deva Raya (1508 - 1530) whose time overlapped with the establishment of Portuguese power in India. The constant warring between Vijaya Nagara and neighboring Bijapur demanded significant amount of horses which allowed Portuguese to prosper. Vijaya Nagara kings captured most of South India by end of 14th century. The surviving Pandiya dynasty looked to Vijaya Nagara empire for guidance. When the Pandiya king was driven from his throne, Vijaya Nagara sent a general, Nagama Nayaka to reinstate the Pandiya king to his throne. Nagama Nayaka proceeded to declare himself as the King of Pandiya country and his son Viswanatha Nayaka, sent from Vijaya Nagara, defeated him in battle. As a recognition of his efforts, Viswanatha Nayaka was given governorship of Madurai and Tanjore (the former Chola and Pandiya kingdoms). Viswanatha Nayaka also put down rebellions from local chieftains in Tirunelveli. To streamline his administration, Viswanatha Nayaka parcelled out the bastions of Madurai fort to 72 Palayakkaarars (Palayakaarar, Poligar (English), Palegadu (Telugu)) who were responsible for its defense at all times and under all circumstances. The Palayakkaarars also had to pay a fixed annual tribute to Viswanatha Nayaka in addition to supplying a quota of troops for his armies. In return they were given titles to particular villages and bestowed with the title of Palayakkaarar. While Dwara Samudra's power resulted in the spread of Kannada across South India, Vijaya Nagara empire spread Telugu across South India. Vijaya Nagara empire was defeated by an agglomeration of Islamic powers in the Battle of Talikota on 25th January 1565. With the utter destruction of Vijaya Nagara empire, Telugus migrated to various parts of Tamil Nadu and in 17th century, the Nayaks in Tanjore, Madurai and Gingee became independent. However, they still considered themselves as beholden to the rump Vijaya Nagara dynasty in Penugonda (in present day Bellary).
After Nayaks became independent, other kingdoms arose in Mysore and Chandragiri (It was from Raja of Chandragiri that English obtained a grant for present day Chennai (named after the Raja's general Chennappa) on March 1, 1640). The famous Nayaks (whose works have survived to this day) were Tirumalai Nayakar who ruled from 1623 - 1659 and Rani Mangammal who ruled from 1689 - 1704. Nayak rule ended when Vijaya Ranga Chokka Natha Nayakkar died in 1731 without a heir. Queen Minakshi adopted a boy and served as the regent in his stead. However, the boy's father Vangaru Tirumalai rose in opposition and requested Nawab of Arcot to intervene. Nawab of Arcot sent an army under Chanda Sahib to sort out the matters. Chanda Sahib imprisoned Queen Minakshi who then killed herself. Vangaru Tirumalai now appealed to Marathas who marched with an army and joined forces with neighboring Hindu kingdoms to depose Chanda Sahib and Nawab of Arcot. Nizam of Hyderabad sent an army to root out the Marathas and appointed his representative, Mohammad Ali Khan Wallajah as Nawab of Arcot. Chanda Sahib now appealed to the French while British supported the Nizam.
In 1754, Commander of British East India Company's sepoys, Mohammad Yusuf Khan (who was born Marudhanayagam Pillai but converted from Hinduism to Islam) helped the English bring Madurai and Tirunelveli under the control of Nawab of Arcot. With the constantly shifting alliances, the Palayakkaarrars in Madurai and Tirunelveli ended up fighting with Mohammad Yusuf Khan. In 1760, Mohammad Yusuf Khan, under Colonel Heron of British East India Company, fought against Kattabomma Nayakar in Panjalamkurichi. In his pacification campaigns, Mohammad Yusuf Khan was pretty cruel towards civilians, blasting prisoners from the mouth of a cannon. Palayakkaarar of Avudiayarpuram, Puli Thevar, joined forces with Raja of Travancore and defeated Nawab of Arcot's forces near Kalakkadu. He offered to form a confederation of Palayakkaarars by joining up with Kattabomma Nayakkar but was rebuffed. When Nawab of Arcot's forces under the leadership of Mahfuz Khan counterattacked, Kattabomma Nayakar supported Mahfuz Khan in his endeavors and they were able to defeat Puli Thevar who fled to the forests. With the general disquiet among Palayakkaarars increasing, Mohammad Yusuf Khan marched his army from Tiruchi to subdue the areas around Madurai and Tirunelveli. He linked up with Raja of Travancore and Nawab of Arcot to subdue Puli Thevar and other Palayakkaarars. The Palayakkaarars under Puli Thevar placed their hopes on the success of Hyder Ali and the French. In this fluid situation, Mohammad Yusuf Khan took matters into his own hands and demanded Nawab of Arcot pay him rent for the forts of Madurai and Palayamkottai in 1761. While British East India Company initially backed his claim, they turned on him and sent a force under General Lawrence to subdue him. Mohammad Yusuf Khan now made an alliance with Hyder Ali and the French. With the conclusion of Seven Years War in Europe in 1763, English and French made peace with each other. Marchand, the French Commander assisting Mohammad Yusuf Khan capitulated and delivered him as a prisoner to Major Donald Campbell of the English. This sequence of events throws the author for a loop as he is unable to justify the actions of Europeans towards Mohammad Yusuf Khan and finally blames the Nawab of Arcot for Mohammad Yusuf Khan's fate.
After Mohammad Yusuf Khan's death, British East India Company repeatedly attempted to quell the rebellion among Palayakkaarars but its success was spotty. In 1767, Major Flint attacked Panjalamkurichi fort and was successfully repulsed. Nawab of Arcot and British East India Company made an agreement whereby the Nawab would turn over revenue and administration of Madurai and Tirunelveli to British East India Company for a period of 7 years. In the meantime, Hyder Ali tried to get Palayakkaarars over to his side. British East India Company demanded its revenue payments from Palayakkaarars and under the leadership of Sivagiri Palayakkaarar, they refused to pay up. As a result, Kattabomma Nayakar and other Palayakkaarars were deposed by British East India Company forces. However, once they left, Kattabomma Nayakar hit back, deposing the Palayakkaarar appointed by the British and the Nawab in 1771. He became the Palayakkaarar (again) of Panjalamkurichi in 1776. Around 1780, when Hyder Ali was wooing the Palayakkaarars, Dutch (who already had control of Tuticorin and Ceylon ports) offered an alliance with Kattabomma Nayakar who accepted and as a result, Dutch flag flew in Panjalamkurichi in 1781. In negotiations between British and the Dutch, British East India Company was open to ceding Tirunelveli to the Dutch. However, with the outbreak of Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, the negotiations were abandoned. In 1783, another expedition of British East India Company under Colonel Fullarton besieged Panjalamkurichi fort. After some initial resistance, Kattabomma Nayakkar fled to Sivagiri and joined forces with Sivagiri Poligar. After a protracted battle, both the Palayakkaarars surrendered and were ordered to pay a restitution of 6,000 pounds per year, demolish their defences, guns, stores and ammunition and keep the access road to their respective forts open to officers of British East India Company. With the conclusion of the 7 year agreement between British and the Nawab, the regions around Tiruchi, Madurai and Tirunelveli were ceded back to the Nawab. In 1790, British East India Company took advantage of the weakness of Nawab of Arcot and took over the revenue administration of Tiruchi, Madurai and Tirunelveli. The rebellion of Sivagiri and Panjalamkurichi flared anew. By this time, Ettaiyapuram Palayakkaarar (who had been historically been a dependent of Panjalamkurichi) had gone over to the British side because of a squabble with Kattabomma Nayakkar over turning over particular villages, as demanded by British. Sivagiri Palayakkaarar had also softened by this time, but his son, with encouragement from Mappillai Vanniyan and Sankaralingam Pillai, deposed his father and took up arms against British East India Company. At the same time, British East India Company was fighting with Hyder Ali and Tippu Sultan and the focus on Mysore provided enough of a breathing space of anti-British East India Company Palayakkaarars to shore up their defenses. In 1792, British concluded another treaty with Nawab of Arcot whereupon his kingdom would be protected by Company troops who would be paid from the Nawab's purse. This led to British East India Company mounting a long drawn out campaign to bring Palayakkaarars of Madurai and Tirunelveli to heel.
Even though the movie Kattabomman portrays the Palayakkaarar of Panjalamkurichi, there have been 4 Kattabomma Nayakars and Panjalamkurichi (along with Sivagiri and Avudaiyarpuram) fought British East India Company for a long time .
1. 1709 - This is the one who Mohammad Yusuf Khan and Colonel Heron fought
2. 1760
3. 1791 - This is the one portrayed by Sivaji Ganesan in Kattabomman movie
4. 1799 - This is the one who joins forces with Maruthu brothers - portrayed in Sivagangai Cheemai movie
The Kattabomma Nayakkar portrayed by Sivaji Ganesan was born Karuttaiah and was the eldest of 3 brothers. His younger brother was deaf and mute (Oomai Durai) called Kumaraswami Nayakkar. The youngest was called Suppa Nayakkar and referred to as Sevattaiah. When Jackson was the collector of Tirunelveli, Kattabomman was accused of stabbing a British East India Company soldier. He was acquitted of the charge owing to preponderance of evidence even though official Ettaiyapuram records still finger Kattabomma Nayakkar as the culprit. Jackson, known for his short temper and speculative excesses, was replaced by Lushington. Lushington demanded Kattabomma Nayakkar pay his kist and submit before him, unarmed, in person. Kattabomma Nayakkar refused and mounted a rebellion along with Palayakkaarars of Nagalapuram, Kollarpatti, Elaiyirampannai, Kadalgudi, Kulaththur, Avudaiyarpuram (even though Puli Thevar later switched his allegiance to British) and Sivagiri. Major Bannerman was sent to subdue Panjalamkurichi. Without waiting for all his forces, he mounted a surprise attack on Panjalamkurichi which was repulsed. After gathering his forces, his second attack was more successful which resulted in Kattabomma Nayakkar escaping first to Sivagangai (in spite of Ettaiyapuram Palayakkaarar's attempts to stop Kattabomma Nayakkar at Kollarpatti) and thence to the country of Vijaya Raghunatha Tondaiman (Raja of Pudukottai). Upon capturing Panjalamkurichi fort, Bannerman put Kattabomman's forces to the sword and as a warning, mounted the head of Subramanya Pillai on a pike. Kattabomma Nayakkar was captured by the forces of Tondaiman at the urging of British. Tondaiman was handsomely rewarded for his treachery with his own kingdom (while the sorrounding areas passed into British control). As an immediate reward, Tondaiman was given a horse and a shawl (Khilut) by Governor of Madras, Lord Clive (Son of Robert Clive) - see below in the transcript link (Page 27). There is even a rumor that Ma. Po. Sivagnanam who wrote the screenplay of Kattabomman movie was blacklisted by the royal family of Pudukottai for painting Tondaiman in a negative light (even though historical evidence is pretty clear on the sympathies of Tondaiman).
Kattabomman was hung from a tree near Kayattar on October 16, 1799. The portrayal of the final moments of Kattabomma Nayakkar in the movie, is taken from the description provided by Bannerman - 'It may not be amiss here to observe the manner and behavior of the Poligar during the whole time of his being before those who were assembled yesterday at the examination which took place was undaunted and supercilious. He frequently eyed the Ettiapuram Poligar, who had been so active in attempting to secure his person, and the Poligar of Sivagiri with an appearance of indignant scorn; and when he went out to be executed he walked with a firm and daring air, and cast looks of sullen contempt on the Poligars to his right and left as he passed. It was reported to me that on his way to the place of execution he expressed some anxiety for his dumb brother alone; and said, when he reached the foot of his tree on which he was hanged that he then regretted having left his fort, in the defence of which it would have been better for him to have died'.
As punishment for their impudence, the rebellious Palayakkaarars were put to work demolishing their own forts and pay coolies from their treasury to do the same. Within a day or two of the demolition, the Panjalamkurichi fort was rebuilt using mud. After the first Palayakkaarar war of 1799, both Oomai Durai and Sevattaiah were imprisoned in Palayamkottai fort. They escaped from the fort dressed as women(they were assisted in this endeavor by an outbreak of smallpox that forced the British to remove chains on all their prisoners in Palayamkottai fort). They reached Panjalamkurichi and immediately started building the defenses back up again. They also defended nearby Kadalgudi and Srivaikuntam from attacks by British East India Company soldiers. After British East India Company gathered its forces, they repeatedly attacked Panjalamkurichi and were successful in overpowering the invaders. Oomai Durai (who was the battle strategist among the Panjalamkurichi brothers - laying out tactics using match sticks in the middle of the battles) was injured in the fight and took refuge in a nearby hut while Sevattaiah escaped to Maruthu brothers in Sivagangai. When Ettaiyapuram soldiers came looking for Oomai Durai, the hostess in the hut covered him with a blanket and told the Ettaiyapuram forces that they had had a smallpox fatality which was enough to scatter the Ettaiyapuram forces. After recovering from his wounds, he joined Sevattaiah at Sivagangai.
The elder Maruthu in Sivagangai was a sportsman and took particular delight in feats of strength. He also set up easy shoots of wild game for British East India Company officers in the woods near Kalaiyar koil (which was the ruling palace of Maruthu brothers). Chinna Maruthu was the leader and administrator of the province. When British East India Company came after Maruthus' dominions for sheltering Sevattaiah and Oomai Durai, Maruthu brothers burnt Siruvayal after evacuating all the people to Kalaiyar Koil. After a long battle, both the Maruthus, Oomai Durai and Sevattaiah were captured on October 1, 1801. The Maruthu brothers were hanged in Tiruppattur while Oomai Durai was hanged in Panjalamkurichi. Sevattaiah was imprisoned in Palayamkottai fort. To make sure Panjalamkurichi never rose again, the fort was levelled to the ground, ploughed over and cultivated. With the crushing of Palayakkaarar resistance, British East India Company took over the control of South India.
Reading this book showed how the establishment of British dominance over the southern districts of Tamil Nadu came at a hefty loss of life (600 - 700 whose graves still adorn those battlefields) for British East India Company. Financially, they were in a good position as its allies (Tondaiman, Palayakaarars) provided significant financial support for any endeavor the British demanded support for. It also shows how the Palayakkaarars played one European power against the other and extended their resistance. In the end, the arrangements made between European powers allowed Britain to focus on getting restive areas in South India under its control.
Other Books of Reference:
The Hollow Crown: Ethnohistory of an Indian Kingdom - Nicholas B Dirks
Yusuf Khan, the Rebel commandant - Samuel Charles Hill
Translations and copies of the letters in which the services of the ancestors of the Rajah Ragoonath Tondiman Behauder are particularly acknowledged ... by the Governors ... of the Honorable E. I. Company
Kaaval Kottam
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